Civilisation has brought people many advantages but its products pollute and damage the environment in which we live. Britain has been protecting the environment against pollution from industry and other sources for more than a century, while in the Czech Republic we are only at the beginning. Pollution affects the air, water, land and plants.
Problems
Air pollution is the biggest problem in large cities and in areas with a concentrated industrial production. Emissions range from smoke, dust and smells to car or lorry exhausts. Smoke contains sulphur dioxide nitrogen oxide and carbon dioxide, which are produced by coal-fired power stations. These substances can cause major changes in the environment that can lead to climate changes. Acids and oxidants fall in the form of rain - acid rains or snow onto trees and gradually kill them.
Trees are important for our life because they are the lungs of our planet. They absorb carbon dioxide from the air and give us oxygen in return. In some parts of the world such as Asia and South America, trees are not threatened by pollution, but by people. The great rain forests are being destroyed for firewood and building materials. Tropical forests provide 50 per cent of the world production of oxygen. It we lose them, it will be difficult or maybe impossible to breathe. With more carbon dioxide in the air, the temperature will rise, the ice caps at the North and South Poles will melt, and the sea level will raise which will result in the flooding of many coastal cities.
The ozone layer is a layer of gas high above the surface of the Earth that helps to protect it from the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, which can damage our skins and cause cancer. Scientists discovered holes in the ozone layer, caused by substances called CFCs – they are used in refrigerators, aerosol cans and in the manufacturing process of some plastic products. Some companies now make aerosols that do not contain CFCs, and they are often labelled ozone friendly.
Soil can be contaminated as a result of industrial waste - some poison leak into the underground water - which is very dangerous because we drink it.
Noises cause considerable problems for many people: lack of concentration
defective hearing
stress
Litter, dust and rubbish in the streets also threaten the environment. Everybody knows that it is wrong to litter but many people still do it.
Animal and plant protection:
is affected by human activities. Some animals are protected - bats, badgers, and others (otters, some species of birds - such as owls). They are bred in captivity and then they live in the wild to have the best chance to survive.
Water is the substance which man cannot survive without. But water is polluted by the waste of chemical industries, heavy metals, acid rains, chemicals used in agriculture (fertilisers), by ship waste and detergents.
How can we solve the problem of air pollution? First of all people should try to use energy, such as solar, water, geothermal or perhaps tidal energy.
Environment - problems
Civilisation has brought people many advantages but its products pollute and damage the environment in which we live. Britain has been protecting the environment against pollution from industry and other sources for more than a century, while in the Czech Republic we are only at the beginning. Pollution affects the air, water, land and plants.
Problems
Air pollution is the biggest problem in large cities and in areas with a concentrated industrial production. Emissions range from smoke, dust and smells to car or lorry exhausts. Smoke contains sulphur dioxide nitrogen oxide and carbon dioxide, which are produced by coal-fired power stations. These substances can cause major changes in the environment that can lead to climate changes. Acids and oxidants fall in the form of rain - acid rains or snow onto trees and gradually kill them.
Trees are important for our life because they are the lungs of our planet. They absorb carbon dioxide from the air and give us oxygen in return. In some parts of the world such as Asia and South America, trees are not threatened by pollution, but by people. The great rain forests are being destroyed for firewood and building materials. Tropical forests provide 50 per cent of the world production of oxygen. It we lose them, it will be difficult or maybe impossible to breathe. With more carbon dioxide in the air, the temperature will rise, the ice caps at the North and South Poles will melt, and the sea level will raise which will result in the flooding of many coastal cities.
The ozone layer is a layer of gas high above the surface of the Earth that helps to protect it from the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, which can damage our skins and cause cancer. Scientists discovered holes in the ozone layer, caused by substances called CFCs – they are used in refrigerators, aerosol cans and in the manufacturing process of some plastic products. Some companies now make aerosols that do not contain CFCs, and they are often labelled ozone friendly.
Soil can be contaminated as a result of industrial waste - some poison leak into the underground water - which is very dangerous because we drink it.
Noises cause considerable problems for many people: lack of concentration
defective hearing
stress
Litter, dust and rubbish in the streets also threaten the environment. Everybody knows that it is wrong to litter but many people still do it.
Animal and plant protection:
is affected by human activities. Some animals are protected - bats, badgers, and others (otters, some species of birds - such as owls). They are bred in captivity and then they live in the wild to have the best chance to survive.
Water is the substance which man cannot survive without. But water is polluted by the waste of chemical industries, heavy metals, acid rains, chemicals used in agriculture (fertilisers), by ship waste and detergents.
How can we solve the problem of air pollution? First of all people should try to use energy, such as solar, water, geothermal or perhaps tidal energy.
Problems
Air pollution is the biggest problem in large cities and in areas with a concentrated industrial production. Emissions range from smoke, dust and smells to car or lorry exhausts. Smoke contains sulphur dioxide nitrogen oxide and carbon dioxide, which are produced by coal-fired power stations. These substances can cause major changes in the environment that can lead to climate changes. Acids and oxidants fall in the form of rain - acid rains or snow onto trees and gradually kill them.
Trees are important for our life because they are the lungs of our planet. They absorb carbon dioxide from the air and give us oxygen in return. In some parts of the world such as Asia and South America, trees are not threatened by pollution, but by people. The great rain forests are being destroyed for firewood and building materials. Tropical forests provide 50 per cent of the world production of oxygen. It we lose them, it will be difficult or maybe impossible to breathe. With more carbon dioxide in the air, the temperature will rise, the ice caps at the North and South Poles will melt, and the sea level will raise which will result in the flooding of many coastal cities.
The ozone layer is a layer of gas high above the surface of the Earth that helps to protect it from the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, which can damage our skins and cause cancer. Scientists discovered holes in the ozone layer, caused by substances called CFCs – they are used in refrigerators, aerosol cans and in the manufacturing process of some plastic products. Some companies now make aerosols that do not contain CFCs, and they are often labelled ozone friendly.
Soil can be contaminated as a result of industrial waste - some poison leak into the underground water - which is very dangerous because we drink it.
Noises cause considerable problems for many people: lack of concentration
defective hearing
stress
Litter, dust and rubbish in the streets also threaten the environment. Everybody knows that it is wrong to litter but many people still do it.
Animal and plant protection:
is affected by human activities. Some animals are protected - bats, badgers, and others (otters, some species of birds - such as owls). They are bred in captivity and then they live in the wild to have the best chance to survive.
Water is the substance which man cannot survive without. But water is polluted by the waste of chemical industries, heavy metals, acid rains, chemicals used in agriculture (fertilisers), by ship waste and detergents.
How can we solve the problem of air pollution? First of all people should try to use energy, such as solar, water, geothermal or perhaps tidal energy.
English history until 1603- Henry VII, Elisabeth I
Henry VII (1509 – 1547)
- had six wives
- united England and Wales
- was educated and very ambitious
- created the Royal navy
- established the Church of England, because the Pope didn’t want to allow him to divorce his first wife
Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603)
- the time of her reign called the Golden age
- many outstanding personalities (Shakespeare, Marlow, Spencer)
- England was the centre of trade roads (because America was discovered)
- outstanding discoverers – Drake, Raleigh
- strong Navy power
- established new colonies
- Parliament became the real Parliament
- had six wives
- united England and Wales
- was educated and very ambitious
- created the Royal navy
- established the Church of England, because the Pope didn’t want to allow him to divorce his first wife
Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603)
- the time of her reign called the Golden age
- many outstanding personalities (Shakespeare, Marlow, Spencer)
- England was the centre of trade roads (because America was discovered)
- outstanding discoverers – Drake, Raleigh
- strong Navy power
- established new colonies
- Parliament became the real Parliament
English history until 1603- Henry VII, Elisabeth I
Henry VII (1509 – 1547)
- had six wives
- united England and Wales
- was educated and very ambitious
- created the Royal navy
- established the Church of England, because the Pope didn’t want to allow him to divorce his first wife
Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603)
- the time of her reign called the Golden age
- many outstanding personalities (Shakespeare, Marlow, Spencer)
- England was the centre of trade roads (because America was discovered)
- outstanding discoverers – Drake, Raleigh
- strong Navy power
- established new colonies
- Parliament became the real Parliament
- had six wives
- united England and Wales
- was educated and very ambitious
- created the Royal navy
- established the Church of England, because the Pope didn’t want to allow him to divorce his first wife
Elizabeth I (1558 – 1603)
- the time of her reign called the Golden age
- many outstanding personalities (Shakespeare, Marlow, Spencer)
- England was the centre of trade roads (because America was discovered)
- outstanding discoverers – Drake, Raleigh
- strong Navy power
- established new colonies
- Parliament became the real Parliament
English history until 1603 - war of roses, hundred years war
The Hundred years war (1337 – 1453)
The 14th century was quite difficult for England. In 1348 there was an epidemic of plague (Black Death).
It reduced the population by 1/3. Edward III was the king and he thought that he had the right to be on the French throne, because his mother was a French princess. He was fighting Joan of Arc and her followers for more than 100 years. England won some battles, but the French were stronger and they won.
This war was very devastating for England. It resulted in economical problems.
9. The War of the Roses (1455 – 1485)
The end of the Hundred years war wasn’t the real end of problems. The throne was free, so two noble families started to struggle for the possession of the throne. They started in 1455. The families were called York and Lancaster and both had roses in their emblem (white and red). They ended when the last York, Richard III was killed in the battle on the Bosworth field. Henry VII united the two rival houses by marrying Eliz of York. So this established the Tudor dynasty.
There were two important rulers in the Tudor’s dynasty. The first one was Henry VIII, the son of Henry VII, and then his daughter Elizabeth I. The period of the Tudor reign is called the Renaissance.
The 14th century was quite difficult for England. In 1348 there was an epidemic of plague (Black Death).
It reduced the population by 1/3. Edward III was the king and he thought that he had the right to be on the French throne, because his mother was a French princess. He was fighting Joan of Arc and her followers for more than 100 years. England won some battles, but the French were stronger and they won.
This war was very devastating for England. It resulted in economical problems.
9. The War of the Roses (1455 – 1485)
The end of the Hundred years war wasn’t the real end of problems. The throne was free, so two noble families started to struggle for the possession of the throne. They started in 1455. The families were called York and Lancaster and both had roses in their emblem (white and red). They ended when the last York, Richard III was killed in the battle on the Bosworth field. Henry VII united the two rival houses by marrying Eliz of York. So this established the Tudor dynasty.
There were two important rulers in the Tudor’s dynasty. The first one was Henry VIII, the son of Henry VII, and then his daughter Elizabeth I. The period of the Tudor reign is called the Renaissance.
English history until 1603 - war of roses, hundred years war
The Hundred years war (1337 – 1453)
The 14th century was quite difficult for England. In 1348 there was an epidemic of plague (Black Death).
It reduced the population by 1/3. Edward III was the king and he thought that he had the right to be on the French throne, because his mother was a French princess. He was fighting Joan of Arc and her followers for more than 100 years. England won some battles, but the French were stronger and they won.
This war was very devastating for England. It resulted in economical problems.
9. The War of the Roses (1455 – 1485)
The end of the Hundred years war wasn’t the real end of problems. The throne was free, so two noble families started to struggle for the possession of the throne. They started in 1455. The families were called York and Lancaster and both had roses in their emblem (white and red). They ended when the last York, Richard III was killed in the battle on the Bosworth field. Henry VII united the two rival houses by marrying Eliz of York. So this established the Tudor dynasty.
There were two important rulers in the Tudor’s dynasty. The first one was Henry VIII, the son of Henry VII, and then his daughter Elizabeth I. The period of the Tudor reign is called the Renaissance.
The 14th century was quite difficult for England. In 1348 there was an epidemic of plague (Black Death).
It reduced the population by 1/3. Edward III was the king and he thought that he had the right to be on the French throne, because his mother was a French princess. He was fighting Joan of Arc and her followers for more than 100 years. England won some battles, but the French were stronger and they won.
This war was very devastating for England. It resulted in economical problems.
9. The War of the Roses (1455 – 1485)
The end of the Hundred years war wasn’t the real end of problems. The throne was free, so two noble families started to struggle for the possession of the throne. They started in 1455. The families were called York and Lancaster and both had roses in their emblem (white and red). They ended when the last York, Richard III was killed in the battle on the Bosworth field. Henry VII united the two rival houses by marrying Eliz of York. So this established the Tudor dynasty.
There were two important rulers in the Tudor’s dynasty. The first one was Henry VIII, the son of Henry VII, and then his daughter Elizabeth I. The period of the Tudor reign is called the Renaissance.
English history until 1603 - Vikings, 12th and 13th century
The Vikings
In the 11th century the Danish king Canute managed[1] to unite the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes. England became a part of Scandinavia. The Vikings were attacking England from the 8th to 11th century. But the Anglo-Saxon empire was restored by Edward the Confessor. He was a very weak ruler so the real man in power was Harold Godwin. When Edward died, Harold was chosen to be the king. This period is called Medieval England. William, the Duke of Normandy, was very upset with this decision. He was Edward’s cousin, and he claimed that he had been nominated to obtain the throne. He took his army and went to England. In 1066 he met with the army of Harold Godwin near Hastings. William had a stronger army with archers and knights, so he won. After the battle, he went to London and was crowned the King of England in Westminster Abbey.
This period was a breakpoint for England. William brought with him to England the feudal system and also the French language. He divided the land among the Norman nobles[2].
12th century
The greatest conflict during this century was a conflict between the Church and the State. The King Henry II wanted to reign without the Church. He established new laws and orders and judicial system. He made his best friend, Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. He thought that Thomas would hold the Church. But Thomas soon argued with Henry and left the country. After his return, Henry II executed him.
13th century
The king Richard the Lionheart ruled at this time. He was very aggressive and so he was fighting the Egyptian ruler Saladin all the time. He died in a battle in France. After him John the Lackland was crowned king. He was forced to sign the document called Magna Charta (1215), because he wanted to increase taxes without the parliament. This document limited the absolute power of the king and gave more freedom to the barons. During his reign the House of Commons was summoned[3] for the first time. He lost a lot of land in France.
The next King Henry III continued the Parliament policy. It was a meeting of the king, his barons and servants. They were discussing problems. Simon de Monfort summoned the House of Commons in 1265.
[1] ) podařit se
[2] ) šlechtic
[3] ) svolat
In the 11th century the Danish king Canute managed[1] to unite the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes. England became a part of Scandinavia. The Vikings were attacking England from the 8th to 11th century. But the Anglo-Saxon empire was restored by Edward the Confessor. He was a very weak ruler so the real man in power was Harold Godwin. When Edward died, Harold was chosen to be the king. This period is called Medieval England. William, the Duke of Normandy, was very upset with this decision. He was Edward’s cousin, and he claimed that he had been nominated to obtain the throne. He took his army and went to England. In 1066 he met with the army of Harold Godwin near Hastings. William had a stronger army with archers and knights, so he won. After the battle, he went to London and was crowned the King of England in Westminster Abbey.
This period was a breakpoint for England. William brought with him to England the feudal system and also the French language. He divided the land among the Norman nobles[2].
12th century
The greatest conflict during this century was a conflict between the Church and the State. The King Henry II wanted to reign without the Church. He established new laws and orders and judicial system. He made his best friend, Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. He thought that Thomas would hold the Church. But Thomas soon argued with Henry and left the country. After his return, Henry II executed him.
13th century
The king Richard the Lionheart ruled at this time. He was very aggressive and so he was fighting the Egyptian ruler Saladin all the time. He died in a battle in France. After him John the Lackland was crowned king. He was forced to sign the document called Magna Charta (1215), because he wanted to increase taxes without the parliament. This document limited the absolute power of the king and gave more freedom to the barons. During his reign the House of Commons was summoned[3] for the first time. He lost a lot of land in France.
The next King Henry III continued the Parliament policy. It was a meeting of the king, his barons and servants. They were discussing problems. Simon de Monfort summoned the House of Commons in 1265.
[1] ) podařit se
[2] ) šlechtic
[3] ) svolat
English history until 1603 - Vikings, 12th and 13th century
The Vikings
In the 11th century the Danish king Canute managed[1] to unite the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes. England became a part of Scandinavia. The Vikings were attacking England from the 8th to 11th century. But the Anglo-Saxon empire was restored by Edward the Confessor. He was a very weak ruler so the real man in power was Harold Godwin. When Edward died, Harold was chosen to be the king. This period is called Medieval England. William, the Duke of Normandy, was very upset with this decision. He was Edward’s cousin, and he claimed that he had been nominated to obtain the throne. He took his army and went to England. In 1066 he met with the army of Harold Godwin near Hastings. William had a stronger army with archers and knights, so he won. After the battle, he went to London and was crowned the King of England in Westminster Abbey.
This period was a breakpoint for England. William brought with him to England the feudal system and also the French language. He divided the land among the Norman nobles[2].
12th century
The greatest conflict during this century was a conflict between the Church and the State. The King Henry II wanted to reign without the Church. He established new laws and orders and judicial system. He made his best friend, Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. He thought that Thomas would hold the Church. But Thomas soon argued with Henry and left the country. After his return, Henry II executed him.
13th century
The king Richard the Lionheart ruled at this time. He was very aggressive and so he was fighting the Egyptian ruler Saladin all the time. He died in a battle in France. After him John the Lackland was crowned king. He was forced to sign the document called Magna Charta (1215), because he wanted to increase taxes without the parliament. This document limited the absolute power of the king and gave more freedom to the barons. During his reign the House of Commons was summoned[3] for the first time. He lost a lot of land in France.
The next King Henry III continued the Parliament policy. It was a meeting of the king, his barons and servants. They were discussing problems. Simon de Monfort summoned the House of Commons in 1265.
[1] ) podařit se
[2] ) šlechtic
[3] ) svolat
In the 11th century the Danish king Canute managed[1] to unite the Anglo-Saxons and the Danes. England became a part of Scandinavia. The Vikings were attacking England from the 8th to 11th century. But the Anglo-Saxon empire was restored by Edward the Confessor. He was a very weak ruler so the real man in power was Harold Godwin. When Edward died, Harold was chosen to be the king. This period is called Medieval England. William, the Duke of Normandy, was very upset with this decision. He was Edward’s cousin, and he claimed that he had been nominated to obtain the throne. He took his army and went to England. In 1066 he met with the army of Harold Godwin near Hastings. William had a stronger army with archers and knights, so he won. After the battle, he went to London and was crowned the King of England in Westminster Abbey.
This period was a breakpoint for England. William brought with him to England the feudal system and also the French language. He divided the land among the Norman nobles[2].
12th century
The greatest conflict during this century was a conflict between the Church and the State. The King Henry II wanted to reign without the Church. He established new laws and orders and judicial system. He made his best friend, Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury. He thought that Thomas would hold the Church. But Thomas soon argued with Henry and left the country. After his return, Henry II executed him.
13th century
The king Richard the Lionheart ruled at this time. He was very aggressive and so he was fighting the Egyptian ruler Saladin all the time. He died in a battle in France. After him John the Lackland was crowned king. He was forced to sign the document called Magna Charta (1215), because he wanted to increase taxes without the parliament. This document limited the absolute power of the king and gave more freedom to the barons. During his reign the House of Commons was summoned[3] for the first time. He lost a lot of land in France.
The next King Henry III continued the Parliament policy. It was a meeting of the king, his barons and servants. They were discussing problems. Simon de Monfort summoned the House of Commons in 1265.
[1] ) podařit se
[2] ) šlechtic
[3] ) svolat
English history until 1603- 5th century
. 5th century
From the 5th century there were many invaders. The most common were the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes. They were coming from Northern Europe especially from Germany and Denmark. They accepted the Latin way of life. They changed their arts, language, political organisation and they converted to Christianity. They also divided Britain into seven small kingdoms. Then the Romans invaded[1] the country again and they plundered the land. The only king who was fighting against them was King Arthur.
After his death the Britons were driven to Wales, Cornwall and Devon. The Angles were the biggest tribe by now. The land was called after them - Anglia. The best known Anglo-Saxon king was called Alfred the Great. He stopped the Danes and established peace with them.
[1] ) vpadnout
From the 5th century there were many invaders. The most common were the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes. They were coming from Northern Europe especially from Germany and Denmark. They accepted the Latin way of life. They changed their arts, language, political organisation and they converted to Christianity. They also divided Britain into seven small kingdoms. Then the Romans invaded[1] the country again and they plundered the land. The only king who was fighting against them was King Arthur.
After his death the Britons were driven to Wales, Cornwall and Devon. The Angles were the biggest tribe by now. The land was called after them - Anglia. The best known Anglo-Saxon king was called Alfred the Great. He stopped the Danes and established peace with them.
[1] ) vpadnout
English history until 1603- 5th century
. 5th century
From the 5th century there were many invaders. The most common were the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes. They were coming from Northern Europe especially from Germany and Denmark. They accepted the Latin way of life. They changed their arts, language, political organisation and they converted to Christianity. They also divided Britain into seven small kingdoms. Then the Romans invaded[1] the country again and they plundered the land. The only king who was fighting against them was King Arthur.
After his death the Britons were driven to Wales, Cornwall and Devon. The Angles were the biggest tribe by now. The land was called after them - Anglia. The best known Anglo-Saxon king was called Alfred the Great. He stopped the Danes and established peace with them.
[1] ) vpadnout
From the 5th century there were many invaders. The most common were the Anglo-Saxons and the Jutes. They were coming from Northern Europe especially from Germany and Denmark. They accepted the Latin way of life. They changed their arts, language, political organisation and they converted to Christianity. They also divided Britain into seven small kingdoms. Then the Romans invaded[1] the country again and they plundered the land. The only king who was fighting against them was King Arthur.
After his death the Britons were driven to Wales, Cornwall and Devon. The Angles were the biggest tribe by now. The land was called after them - Anglia. The best known Anglo-Saxon king was called Alfred the Great. He stopped the Danes and established peace with them.
[1] ) vpadnout
English history until 1603- the Celts, the Romans
The Celts
They came in the 8th century and they overran the other tribes. They came from Germany and the Netherlands. They were aggressive and they were all the time fighting. They arrived in three waves. The first wave were the Geals (arrived between 800 BC and 700 BC). The second were the Britons (arrived between 600 BC and 500 BC). The third were the Belgae who came in 100 BC. They came with iron weapons and tools, therefore that age is called the Iron Age.
The Romans
They first invaded England in 55 BC with Gaius Julius Caesar as their leader, but they were not successful. In 10 AD the Celtic ruler Cunobelinus conquered all the tribes in England and made Colchester his seat. He was on very good terms[1] with the Romans. After his death the Roman Emperor called Claudius invaded England for the second time in 43 AD. He was successful and he conquered it. The Romans ruled England for two centuries. They left us three important things. They established cities, roads and introduced Christianity (in 597 by St. Augustine). The cities built by them usually end with the ending „-chester“ or „-easter“. During the reign[2] of the Romans the Hadrian wall was built. The Emperor Hadrian built this wall to protect the country (123 AD).
[1] ) poměry
[2] ) vláda
They came in the 8th century and they overran the other tribes. They came from Germany and the Netherlands. They were aggressive and they were all the time fighting. They arrived in three waves. The first wave were the Geals (arrived between 800 BC and 700 BC). The second were the Britons (arrived between 600 BC and 500 BC). The third were the Belgae who came in 100 BC. They came with iron weapons and tools, therefore that age is called the Iron Age.
The Romans
They first invaded England in 55 BC with Gaius Julius Caesar as their leader, but they were not successful. In 10 AD the Celtic ruler Cunobelinus conquered all the tribes in England and made Colchester his seat. He was on very good terms[1] with the Romans. After his death the Roman Emperor called Claudius invaded England for the second time in 43 AD. He was successful and he conquered it. The Romans ruled England for two centuries. They left us three important things. They established cities, roads and introduced Christianity (in 597 by St. Augustine). The cities built by them usually end with the ending „-chester“ or „-easter“. During the reign[2] of the Romans the Hadrian wall was built. The Emperor Hadrian built this wall to protect the country (123 AD).
[1] ) poměry
[2] ) vláda
English history until 1603- the Celts, the Romans
The Celts
They came in the 8th century and they overran the other tribes. They came from Germany and the Netherlands. They were aggressive and they were all the time fighting. They arrived in three waves. The first wave were the Geals (arrived between 800 BC and 700 BC). The second were the Britons (arrived between 600 BC and 500 BC). The third were the Belgae who came in 100 BC. They came with iron weapons and tools, therefore that age is called the Iron Age.
The Romans
They first invaded England in 55 BC with Gaius Julius Caesar as their leader, but they were not successful. In 10 AD the Celtic ruler Cunobelinus conquered all the tribes in England and made Colchester his seat. He was on very good terms[1] with the Romans. After his death the Roman Emperor called Claudius invaded England for the second time in 43 AD. He was successful and he conquered it. The Romans ruled England for two centuries. They left us three important things. They established cities, roads and introduced Christianity (in 597 by St. Augustine). The cities built by them usually end with the ending „-chester“ or „-easter“. During the reign[2] of the Romans the Hadrian wall was built. The Emperor Hadrian built this wall to protect the country (123 AD).
[1] ) poměry
[2] ) vláda
They came in the 8th century and they overran the other tribes. They came from Germany and the Netherlands. They were aggressive and they were all the time fighting. They arrived in three waves. The first wave were the Geals (arrived between 800 BC and 700 BC). The second were the Britons (arrived between 600 BC and 500 BC). The third were the Belgae who came in 100 BC. They came with iron weapons and tools, therefore that age is called the Iron Age.
The Romans
They first invaded England in 55 BC with Gaius Julius Caesar as their leader, but they were not successful. In 10 AD the Celtic ruler Cunobelinus conquered all the tribes in England and made Colchester his seat. He was on very good terms[1] with the Romans. After his death the Roman Emperor called Claudius invaded England for the second time in 43 AD. He was successful and he conquered it. The Romans ruled England for two centuries. They left us three important things. They established cities, roads and introduced Christianity (in 597 by St. Augustine). The cities built by them usually end with the ending „-chester“ or „-easter“. During the reign[2] of the Romans the Hadrian wall was built. The Emperor Hadrian built this wall to protect the country (123 AD).
[1] ) poměry
[2] ) vláda
English history until 1603-. The oldest inhabitants
The first Homo Sapiens Sapiens were hunters and lived on the territory of Britain between 40,000 BC and 10,000 BC. This age is called the Old Stone Age.
About 3,000 BC there came other people. They settled along the western shores[1] of England. They brought cattle[2], sheep, goats[3], pigs and also the seeds of corns.
They introduced farming and new crafts in Britain – stone tools, pottery[4], working with flint[5], axes. They lived in the age called New Stone Age. They were peaceful and lived in tribes.
In 2,000 BC other tribes began to arrive from Spain. They settled in southern England. They knew metals and therefore they mined gold and copper[6]. They also produced bronze and they made weapons of it. For example: hoes[7], spades[8], knives and daggers. This age is called Bronze Age. They lived in tribes too, but they buried their dead in round barrows[9]. They are known as the Iberians. They can be proclaimed the creators of civilisation on the territory of Britain. They built the prehistoric temples in Avebury and Stonehenge. These temples were used by high society called the druids. They had a similar function to today’s priests.
Stonehenge – a huge circle of standing stones. It was built near Salisbury probably in 2000 BC. The purpose of it isn’t known, but it could have been an astronomical church or a place for people to say their prayers to God.
[1] ) pobřeží, břeh
[2] ) dobytek
[3] ) koza
[4] ) hrnčířství
[5] ) pazourek
[6] ) měď
[7] ) motyka
[8] ) rýč
[9] ) mohyla
About 3,000 BC there came other people. They settled along the western shores[1] of England. They brought cattle[2], sheep, goats[3], pigs and also the seeds of corns.
They introduced farming and new crafts in Britain – stone tools, pottery[4], working with flint[5], axes. They lived in the age called New Stone Age. They were peaceful and lived in tribes.
In 2,000 BC other tribes began to arrive from Spain. They settled in southern England. They knew metals and therefore they mined gold and copper[6]. They also produced bronze and they made weapons of it. For example: hoes[7], spades[8], knives and daggers. This age is called Bronze Age. They lived in tribes too, but they buried their dead in round barrows[9]. They are known as the Iberians. They can be proclaimed the creators of civilisation on the territory of Britain. They built the prehistoric temples in Avebury and Stonehenge. These temples were used by high society called the druids. They had a similar function to today’s priests.
Stonehenge – a huge circle of standing stones. It was built near Salisbury probably in 2000 BC. The purpose of it isn’t known, but it could have been an astronomical church or a place for people to say their prayers to God.
[1] ) pobřeží, břeh
[2] ) dobytek
[3] ) koza
[4] ) hrnčířství
[5] ) pazourek
[6] ) měď
[7] ) motyka
[8] ) rýč
[9] ) mohyla
English history until 1603-. The oldest inhabitants
The first Homo Sapiens Sapiens were hunters and lived on the territory of Britain between 40,000 BC and 10,000 BC. This age is called the Old Stone Age.
About 3,000 BC there came other people. They settled along the western shores[1] of England. They brought cattle[2], sheep, goats[3], pigs and also the seeds of corns.
They introduced farming and new crafts in Britain – stone tools, pottery[4], working with flint[5], axes. They lived in the age called New Stone Age. They were peaceful and lived in tribes.
In 2,000 BC other tribes began to arrive from Spain. They settled in southern England. They knew metals and therefore they mined gold and copper[6]. They also produced bronze and they made weapons of it. For example: hoes[7], spades[8], knives and daggers. This age is called Bronze Age. They lived in tribes too, but they buried their dead in round barrows[9]. They are known as the Iberians. They can be proclaimed the creators of civilisation on the territory of Britain. They built the prehistoric temples in Avebury and Stonehenge. These temples were used by high society called the druids. They had a similar function to today’s priests.
Stonehenge – a huge circle of standing stones. It was built near Salisbury probably in 2000 BC. The purpose of it isn’t known, but it could have been an astronomical church or a place for people to say their prayers to God.
[1] ) pobřeží, břeh
[2] ) dobytek
[3] ) koza
[4] ) hrnčířství
[5] ) pazourek
[6] ) měď
[7] ) motyka
[8] ) rýč
[9] ) mohyla
About 3,000 BC there came other people. They settled along the western shores[1] of England. They brought cattle[2], sheep, goats[3], pigs and also the seeds of corns.
They introduced farming and new crafts in Britain – stone tools, pottery[4], working with flint[5], axes. They lived in the age called New Stone Age. They were peaceful and lived in tribes.
In 2,000 BC other tribes began to arrive from Spain. They settled in southern England. They knew metals and therefore they mined gold and copper[6]. They also produced bronze and they made weapons of it. For example: hoes[7], spades[8], knives and daggers. This age is called Bronze Age. They lived in tribes too, but they buried their dead in round barrows[9]. They are known as the Iberians. They can be proclaimed the creators of civilisation on the territory of Britain. They built the prehistoric temples in Avebury and Stonehenge. These temples were used by high society called the druids. They had a similar function to today’s priests.
Stonehenge – a huge circle of standing stones. It was built near Salisbury probably in 2000 BC. The purpose of it isn’t known, but it could have been an astronomical church or a place for people to say their prayers to God.
[1] ) pobřeží, břeh
[2] ) dobytek
[3] ) koza
[4] ) hrnčířství
[5] ) pazourek
[6] ) měď
[7] ) motyka
[8] ) rýč
[9] ) mohyla
English history from 1603-After the Second World War
After the Second World War
After the war, the Labour Government nationalised the railways, the coal mines, steelworks, and gas and electricity industries. They extended the social services provided by the state, insurance against unemployment and old age, weekly benefits for minimal needs and free medical health care for everyone - National Medical Service. Great Britain lost its last colony - India. During the fifties there was a period of growth of the private system. Old colonies formed the Commonwealth. Britain lost influence in world affairs, which resulted in its application for membership in the EEC - European Economy Community. In the sixties, Great Britain was influenced by music, mainly The Beatles and Rolling Stones.
After the war, the Labour Government nationalised the railways, the coal mines, steelworks, and gas and electricity industries. They extended the social services provided by the state, insurance against unemployment and old age, weekly benefits for minimal needs and free medical health care for everyone - National Medical Service. Great Britain lost its last colony - India. During the fifties there was a period of growth of the private system. Old colonies formed the Commonwealth. Britain lost influence in world affairs, which resulted in its application for membership in the EEC - European Economy Community. In the sixties, Great Britain was influenced by music, mainly The Beatles and Rolling Stones.
English history from 1603-After the Second World War
After the Second World War
After the war, the Labour Government nationalised the railways, the coal mines, steelworks, and gas and electricity industries. They extended the social services provided by the state, insurance against unemployment and old age, weekly benefits for minimal needs and free medical health care for everyone - National Medical Service. Great Britain lost its last colony - India. During the fifties there was a period of growth of the private system. Old colonies formed the Commonwealth. Britain lost influence in world affairs, which resulted in its application for membership in the EEC - European Economy Community. In the sixties, Great Britain was influenced by music, mainly The Beatles and Rolling Stones.
After the war, the Labour Government nationalised the railways, the coal mines, steelworks, and gas and electricity industries. They extended the social services provided by the state, insurance against unemployment and old age, weekly benefits for minimal needs and free medical health care for everyone - National Medical Service. Great Britain lost its last colony - India. During the fifties there was a period of growth of the private system. Old colonies formed the Commonwealth. Britain lost influence in world affairs, which resulted in its application for membership in the EEC - European Economy Community. In the sixties, Great Britain was influenced by music, mainly The Beatles and Rolling Stones.
English history from 1603 - world war
. The First World War
The main reason of the First World War was the rivalry between great European powers. They wanted to gain other colonies. In Great Britain, the contribution[1] of women on the home front to the final victory was so important that it was impossible to deny them the right the vote.
7. The twenties and the thirties
This period was influenced by the economic situation. Unemployment was high, wages[2] were low. There were many strikes[3] including the General Strike in 1926. The Wall Street stock exchange crashed in 1929.
8. The Second World War
Great Britain was very ill prepared for this war. It had cost Great Britain 1/4 of its national wealth[4]. The reasons – the British wanted to resolve this problem by peace at first and they didn’t arm so much. But when Germany attacked Poland, Great Britain entered the war only three days later. Winston Churchill was a very important person during this war.
Battle of Britain - German Luftwaffe inflicted great damage on London, but was repelled by the royal Air Force.
[1] příspěvek
[2] mzda
[3] stávka
[4] bohatství, majetek
The main reason of the First World War was the rivalry between great European powers. They wanted to gain other colonies. In Great Britain, the contribution[1] of women on the home front to the final victory was so important that it was impossible to deny them the right the vote.
7. The twenties and the thirties
This period was influenced by the economic situation. Unemployment was high, wages[2] were low. There were many strikes[3] including the General Strike in 1926. The Wall Street stock exchange crashed in 1929.
8. The Second World War
Great Britain was very ill prepared for this war. It had cost Great Britain 1/4 of its national wealth[4]. The reasons – the British wanted to resolve this problem by peace at first and they didn’t arm so much. But when Germany attacked Poland, Great Britain entered the war only three days later. Winston Churchill was a very important person during this war.
Battle of Britain - German Luftwaffe inflicted great damage on London, but was repelled by the royal Air Force.
[1] příspěvek
[2] mzda
[3] stávka
[4] bohatství, majetek
English history from 1603 - world war
. The First World War
The main reason of the First World War was the rivalry between great European powers. They wanted to gain other colonies. In Great Britain, the contribution[1] of women on the home front to the final victory was so important that it was impossible to deny them the right the vote.
7. The twenties and the thirties
This period was influenced by the economic situation. Unemployment was high, wages[2] were low. There were many strikes[3] including the General Strike in 1926. The Wall Street stock exchange crashed in 1929.
8. The Second World War
Great Britain was very ill prepared for this war. It had cost Great Britain 1/4 of its national wealth[4]. The reasons – the British wanted to resolve this problem by peace at first and they didn’t arm so much. But when Germany attacked Poland, Great Britain entered the war only three days later. Winston Churchill was a very important person during this war.
Battle of Britain - German Luftwaffe inflicted great damage on London, but was repelled by the royal Air Force.
[1] příspěvek
[2] mzda
[3] stávka
[4] bohatství, majetek
The main reason of the First World War was the rivalry between great European powers. They wanted to gain other colonies. In Great Britain, the contribution[1] of women on the home front to the final victory was so important that it was impossible to deny them the right the vote.
7. The twenties and the thirties
This period was influenced by the economic situation. Unemployment was high, wages[2] were low. There were many strikes[3] including the General Strike in 1926. The Wall Street stock exchange crashed in 1929.
8. The Second World War
Great Britain was very ill prepared for this war. It had cost Great Britain 1/4 of its national wealth[4]. The reasons – the British wanted to resolve this problem by peace at first and they didn’t arm so much. But when Germany attacked Poland, Great Britain entered the war only three days later. Winston Churchill was a very important person during this war.
Battle of Britain - German Luftwaffe inflicted great damage on London, but was repelled by the royal Air Force.
[1] příspěvek
[2] mzda
[3] stávka
[4] bohatství, majetek
English history from 1603-Queen Victoria - born in 1819, reign 1837-1901.
British products were exported to the whole world. Trade unions were founded due to the pressure of poor workers. Queen Victoria created a large Empire, which covered 1/4 of the world. The British Empire was so large because of commercial, military and strategic reasons. In this period there were many changes in British institutions and in the way of living. Queen Victoria wanted to be informed of Government policies and she was politically neutral. She engaged in the aristocracy life and very often arranged parties. This fact enabled people to agree with her as a widow[1]. She is known for her values. She promoted[2] discipline of the family and the Puritanism of public life. During her reign Disraeli was the Prime Minister and after him Gladstone. The reign of Queen Victoria was successful and without wars in England.
After the death of Queen Victoria, Britain declined[3] as a world power and Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa were allowed to draw up their constitutions and became dominions. Vast areas of Africa and India remained under British domination.
[1] vdova
[2] podporovat
[3] sestup, pokles
After the death of Queen Victoria, Britain declined[3] as a world power and Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa were allowed to draw up their constitutions and became dominions. Vast areas of Africa and India remained under British domination.
[1] vdova
[2] podporovat
[3] sestup, pokles
English history from 1603-Queen Victoria - born in 1819, reign 1837-1901.
British products were exported to the whole world. Trade unions were founded due to the pressure of poor workers. Queen Victoria created a large Empire, which covered 1/4 of the world. The British Empire was so large because of commercial, military and strategic reasons. In this period there were many changes in British institutions and in the way of living. Queen Victoria wanted to be informed of Government policies and she was politically neutral. She engaged in the aristocracy life and very often arranged parties. This fact enabled people to agree with her as a widow[1]. She is known for her values. She promoted[2] discipline of the family and the Puritanism of public life. During her reign Disraeli was the Prime Minister and after him Gladstone. The reign of Queen Victoria was successful and without wars in England.
After the death of Queen Victoria, Britain declined[3] as a world power and Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa were allowed to draw up their constitutions and became dominions. Vast areas of Africa and India remained under British domination.
[1] vdova
[2] podporovat
[3] sestup, pokles
After the death of Queen Victoria, Britain declined[3] as a world power and Canada, Australia, New Zealand and South Africa were allowed to draw up their constitutions and became dominions. Vast areas of Africa and India remained under British domination.
[1] vdova
[2] podporovat
[3] sestup, pokles
English history from 1603-18th and 19th century
Queen Ann united England with Scotland in 1707 and Scottish and English Parliament became one institution. She didn’t have any children. There were some descendants of James II. (George I) in Hanover and they were Protestants. They didn’t want to change their religion. They became English kings in Germany, they didn’t speak English and they didn’t spend much time in England. It was the reason for the new post of the Prime Minister to be founded. The first Prime Minister was Walpole. The British colonised Canada and India.
The agriculture[1] revolution - Farms were connected with large fields and agriculture production increased.
The industrial revolution - Industry was transformed. Many machines were used and great factories were founded. There were also a lot of successful inventions in Britain.
Population boom - In 1700 in Britain there lived 5 million people and in 1821 already 14 million.
[1] zemědělství
The agriculture[1] revolution - Farms were connected with large fields and agriculture production increased.
The industrial revolution - Industry was transformed. Many machines were used and great factories were founded. There were also a lot of successful inventions in Britain.
Population boom - In 1700 in Britain there lived 5 million people and in 1821 already 14 million.
[1] zemědělství
English history from 1603-18th and 19th century
Queen Ann united England with Scotland in 1707 and Scottish and English Parliament became one institution. She didn’t have any children. There were some descendants of James II. (George I) in Hanover and they were Protestants. They didn’t want to change their religion. They became English kings in Germany, they didn’t speak English and they didn’t spend much time in England. It was the reason for the new post of the Prime Minister to be founded. The first Prime Minister was Walpole. The British colonised Canada and India.
The agriculture[1] revolution - Farms were connected with large fields and agriculture production increased.
The industrial revolution - Industry was transformed. Many machines were used and great factories were founded. There were also a lot of successful inventions in Britain.
Population boom - In 1700 in Britain there lived 5 million people and in 1821 already 14 million.
[1] zemědělství
The agriculture[1] revolution - Farms were connected with large fields and agriculture production increased.
The industrial revolution - Industry was transformed. Many machines were used and great factories were founded. There were also a lot of successful inventions in Britain.
Population boom - In 1700 in Britain there lived 5 million people and in 1821 already 14 million.
[1] zemědělství
English history from 1603- The glorious revolution 1688
After James’s death the Parliament agreed to invite William III. of Orange and Marry to take the crown. This revolution was bloody. It was accompanied[1] by the Bill of Rights (no Catholic could claim[2] the throne), which implied the rule of the Parliament system. By the fact, that the English king wasn’t allowed to be Catholic, they outlawed the Catholics.
[1] doprovázet
[2] nárok
[1] doprovázet
[2] nárok
English history from 1603- The glorious revolution 1688
After James’s death the Parliament agreed to invite William III. of Orange and Marry to take the crown. This revolution was bloody. It was accompanied[1] by the Bill of Rights (no Catholic could claim[2] the throne), which implied the rule of the Parliament system. By the fact, that the English king wasn’t allowed to be Catholic, they outlawed the Catholics.
[1] doprovázet
[2] nárok
[1] doprovázet
[2] nárok
English history from 1603 - . The restoration 1660
After Cromwell’s death the monarchy was restored, because Cromwell’s son was unable to follow his father. In 1660 Charles II. was invited to sit on the throne of the country. The plague and the great fire in 1666, which destroyed most of the city of London during his reign, were considered the anger[1] of God by the Puritans. His successor was James II. He released the idea of the necessary Government and Parliament. Parliament was dominated by two groups - the Whigs (Liberal party) and the Tories (Conservative party).
[1] zlost
[1] zlost
English history from 1603 - . The restoration 1660
After Cromwell’s death the monarchy was restored, because Cromwell’s son was unable to follow his father. In 1660 Charles II. was invited to sit on the throne of the country. The plague and the great fire in 1666, which destroyed most of the city of London during his reign, were considered the anger[1] of God by the Puritans. His successor was James II. He released the idea of the necessary Government and Parliament. Parliament was dominated by two groups - the Whigs (Liberal party) and the Tories (Conservative party).
[1] zlost
[1] zlost
English history from 1603 - the civil war
1. The civil war
After Elizabeth, the Stuart’s came to the English throne. Charles I. was one of the Stuart’s. He ignored the Parliament and prevented[1] it for meeting for eleven years until he needed its help to rise the tax for the war against Scotland. When the Parliament opposed[2] him, he wanted to arrest the main leaders and therefore the relation[3] between the Parliament and Charles I. became so bad, that the civil war started in 1642. The majority of the Gentry supported the Parliament in this war. After Oliver Cromwell won in 1645, Charles I. was executed[4] and Cromwell became Lord Protector. England became a republic.
[1] zabránit
[2] čelit, vzdorovat
[3] vztah
[4] popravit
After Elizabeth, the Stuart’s came to the English throne. Charles I. was one of the Stuart’s. He ignored the Parliament and prevented[1] it for meeting for eleven years until he needed its help to rise the tax for the war against Scotland. When the Parliament opposed[2] him, he wanted to arrest the main leaders and therefore the relation[3] between the Parliament and Charles I. became so bad, that the civil war started in 1642. The majority of the Gentry supported the Parliament in this war. After Oliver Cromwell won in 1645, Charles I. was executed[4] and Cromwell became Lord Protector. England became a republic.
[1] zabránit
[2] čelit, vzdorovat
[3] vztah
[4] popravit
English history from 1603 - the civil war
1. The civil war
After Elizabeth, the Stuart’s came to the English throne. Charles I. was one of the Stuart’s. He ignored the Parliament and prevented[1] it for meeting for eleven years until he needed its help to rise the tax for the war against Scotland. When the Parliament opposed[2] him, he wanted to arrest the main leaders and therefore the relation[3] between the Parliament and Charles I. became so bad, that the civil war started in 1642. The majority of the Gentry supported the Parliament in this war. After Oliver Cromwell won in 1645, Charles I. was executed[4] and Cromwell became Lord Protector. England became a republic.
[1] zabránit
[2] čelit, vzdorovat
[3] vztah
[4] popravit
After Elizabeth, the Stuart’s came to the English throne. Charles I. was one of the Stuart’s. He ignored the Parliament and prevented[1] it for meeting for eleven years until he needed its help to rise the tax for the war against Scotland. When the Parliament opposed[2] him, he wanted to arrest the main leaders and therefore the relation[3] between the Parliament and Charles I. became so bad, that the civil war started in 1642. The majority of the Gentry supported the Parliament in this war. After Oliver Cromwell won in 1645, Charles I. was executed[4] and Cromwell became Lord Protector. England became a republic.
[1] zabránit
[2] čelit, vzdorovat
[3] vztah
[4] popravit
Outstanding English and American personalities - Diana
DIANA, Princess of Wales
She was born on the 1st of July 1961 in Sandringham, England, as a member of the nobility. Her real name was Diana Frances Spencer. Diana was born at Park House, the home that her parents rented on the estate of Queen Elizabeth II and where her childhood playmates were Queen's younger sons Andrew and Edward. She was the youngest of the three daughters of Edward John Spencer and Frances Ruth Roche, who were divorced in 1969.
She attended three private schools in England from 1966 until 1978. She finished school at the Institute Alpin Videmanette in Rougemont, where she perfected her French language and became a competent skier.
In 1979 she returned to London. She lived with three female friends in a rented apartment in South Kensington. For a while she looked after the child of an American couple. She then worked as a kindergarten teacher in London.
Her friendship with Charles, the Prince of Wales, first in line to the British throne, grew in 1980, and on the 24th of February 1981 it was announced that Lady Diana Spencer was to marry the Prince of Wales. She was the first English woman to marry an heir to the throne in over 300 years. They were married on the 29th of July 1981 in St. Paul's Cathedral in London. 750 million people watched this wedding on TV. She had two sons. Prince William born in 1982 and Prince Henry in 1984 - both were born at St Mary's Hospital.
Eleven years after her marriage and after many reports concerning arguments between the two, the couple were officially separated on the 9th of December 1992 and remained a great deal detached from each other ever since.
In November 1995 she admitted having a love affair with her riding coach James Hewitt. On the 28th of February 1996 she announced official divorce. After their separation on the 31st of August 1997, the beautiful lady Diana was killed in a traffic accident in Paris. She died also with her new love Dodie Fayad.
Her favourites: place: London's West End
food: Pasta, salads and fruit
drink: chilled dry white wine
hobbies: shopping, skiing
During her life she became the most famous woman in the world. She helped in many charities taking care of social problems including AIDS, poverty and drug problems. In a certain respect she also brought the monarchy to its knees, because people supported her.
1 ) majetek, usedlost
2 ) dědic
3 ) oddělovat
1
She was born on the 1st of July 1961 in Sandringham, England, as a member of the nobility. Her real name was Diana Frances Spencer. Diana was born at Park House, the home that her parents rented on the estate of Queen Elizabeth II and where her childhood playmates were Queen's younger sons Andrew and Edward. She was the youngest of the three daughters of Edward John Spencer and Frances Ruth Roche, who were divorced in 1969.
She attended three private schools in England from 1966 until 1978. She finished school at the Institute Alpin Videmanette in Rougemont, where she perfected her French language and became a competent skier.
In 1979 she returned to London. She lived with three female friends in a rented apartment in South Kensington. For a while she looked after the child of an American couple. She then worked as a kindergarten teacher in London.
Her friendship with Charles, the Prince of Wales, first in line to the British throne, grew in 1980, and on the 24th of February 1981 it was announced that Lady Diana Spencer was to marry the Prince of Wales. She was the first English woman to marry an heir to the throne in over 300 years. They were married on the 29th of July 1981 in St. Paul's Cathedral in London. 750 million people watched this wedding on TV. She had two sons. Prince William born in 1982 and Prince Henry in 1984 - both were born at St Mary's Hospital.
Eleven years after her marriage and after many reports concerning arguments between the two, the couple were officially separated on the 9th of December 1992 and remained a great deal detached from each other ever since.
In November 1995 she admitted having a love affair with her riding coach James Hewitt. On the 28th of February 1996 she announced official divorce. After their separation on the 31st of August 1997, the beautiful lady Diana was killed in a traffic accident in Paris. She died also with her new love Dodie Fayad.
Her favourites: place: London's West End
food: Pasta, salads and fruit
drink: chilled dry white wine
hobbies: shopping, skiing
During her life she became the most famous woman in the world. She helped in many charities taking care of social problems including AIDS, poverty and drug problems. In a certain respect she also brought the monarchy to its knees, because people supported her.
1 ) majetek, usedlost
2 ) dědic
3 ) oddělovat
1
Outstanding English and American personalities - Diana
DIANA, Princess of Wales
She was born on the 1st of July 1961 in Sandringham, England, as a member of the nobility. Her real name was Diana Frances Spencer. Diana was born at Park House, the home that her parents rented on the estate of Queen Elizabeth II and where her childhood playmates were Queen's younger sons Andrew and Edward. She was the youngest of the three daughters of Edward John Spencer and Frances Ruth Roche, who were divorced in 1969.
She attended three private schools in England from 1966 until 1978. She finished school at the Institute Alpin Videmanette in Rougemont, where she perfected her French language and became a competent skier.
In 1979 she returned to London. She lived with three female friends in a rented apartment in South Kensington. For a while she looked after the child of an American couple. She then worked as a kindergarten teacher in London.
Her friendship with Charles, the Prince of Wales, first in line to the British throne, grew in 1980, and on the 24th of February 1981 it was announced that Lady Diana Spencer was to marry the Prince of Wales. She was the first English woman to marry an heir to the throne in over 300 years. They were married on the 29th of July 1981 in St. Paul's Cathedral in London. 750 million people watched this wedding on TV. She had two sons. Prince William born in 1982 and Prince Henry in 1984 - both were born at St Mary's Hospital.
Eleven years after her marriage and after many reports concerning arguments between the two, the couple were officially separated on the 9th of December 1992 and remained a great deal detached from each other ever since.
In November 1995 she admitted having a love affair with her riding coach James Hewitt. On the 28th of February 1996 she announced official divorce. After their separation on the 31st of August 1997, the beautiful lady Diana was killed in a traffic accident in Paris. She died also with her new love Dodie Fayad.
Her favourites: place: London's West End
food: Pasta, salads and fruit
drink: chilled dry white wine
hobbies: shopping, skiing
During her life she became the most famous woman in the world. She helped in many charities taking care of social problems including AIDS, poverty and drug problems. In a certain respect she also brought the monarchy to its knees, because people supported her.
1 ) majetek, usedlost
2 ) dědic
3 ) oddělovat
1
She was born on the 1st of July 1961 in Sandringham, England, as a member of the nobility. Her real name was Diana Frances Spencer. Diana was born at Park House, the home that her parents rented on the estate of Queen Elizabeth II and where her childhood playmates were Queen's younger sons Andrew and Edward. She was the youngest of the three daughters of Edward John Spencer and Frances Ruth Roche, who were divorced in 1969.
She attended three private schools in England from 1966 until 1978. She finished school at the Institute Alpin Videmanette in Rougemont, where she perfected her French language and became a competent skier.
In 1979 she returned to London. She lived with three female friends in a rented apartment in South Kensington. For a while she looked after the child of an American couple. She then worked as a kindergarten teacher in London.
Her friendship with Charles, the Prince of Wales, first in line to the British throne, grew in 1980, and on the 24th of February 1981 it was announced that Lady Diana Spencer was to marry the Prince of Wales. She was the first English woman to marry an heir to the throne in over 300 years. They were married on the 29th of July 1981 in St. Paul's Cathedral in London. 750 million people watched this wedding on TV. She had two sons. Prince William born in 1982 and Prince Henry in 1984 - both were born at St Mary's Hospital.
Eleven years after her marriage and after many reports concerning arguments between the two, the couple were officially separated on the 9th of December 1992 and remained a great deal detached from each other ever since.
In November 1995 she admitted having a love affair with her riding coach James Hewitt. On the 28th of February 1996 she announced official divorce. After their separation on the 31st of August 1997, the beautiful lady Diana was killed in a traffic accident in Paris. She died also with her new love Dodie Fayad.
Her favourites: place: London's West End
food: Pasta, salads and fruit
drink: chilled dry white wine
hobbies: shopping, skiing
During her life she became the most famous woman in the world. She helped in many charities taking care of social problems including AIDS, poverty and drug problems. In a certain respect she also brought the monarchy to its knees, because people supported her.
1 ) majetek, usedlost
2 ) dědic
3 ) oddělovat
1
Outstanding English and American personalities - Winston L. S. Churchill
Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill
If we go several miles westwards from Oxford, we come to a small village called Bladon. This village is full of very old buildings and there is also a cemetery there. There are very old graves but one of them looks very new. On the gravestone we can read the name of Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill.
This famous politic was born on the 30th November 1874. This time was quite a mild period for England. His life story was very long. When he started his political life, people were going to meetings in carriages, and when he was dying there were satellites around the world. Winston Churchill was one of the biggest personalities in the English history. He was a man of many faces. We know him mainly as a politician and statesman, but he was also an officer during the world war and at the end of his life he was awarded the Nobel price for literature.
His career started in 1896 when he was an officer in India (it was a British colony at that time). He finished his work there in 1898, and then took part in the English march to Sudan. From 1899 to 1902 he was a war correspondent. He started his political life in 1900, when he became a Member of Parliament in the House of Commons. At this time he was very admired in England and all the people were talking about him. In the following years he held many functions: 1908 - 10 Minister of Commerce, 1910 -11 Minister of Home Office and in 1911 - 15 First Lord of Admiralty. After the failure of the Dardanel operation in 1915, he resigned from political life and in 1915 - 17 he was fighting as a British officer in France and Belgium. In 1917 he returned back to political life. He recognised, that he likes problems related to wars and therefore he accepted a position as the Minister of Armament in 1917 and next year as the Minister of War. He contributed significantly to the modernisation of the British army and he supported strongly the implementation of tanks. He was one of the main organisers of the intervention against Russia. In the thirties he suggested the brisk policy against the Nazi Germany and he criticised the Munich Treaty. When the Second World War started, he was appointed the First Lord of Admiralty. He was one of the three main representatives of the anti-nazi coalition (it was called the "Big Three”). During the war he represented Great Britain on all important conferences (Casablanca, Teheran, Postupim). He consistently protected the power of the British Empire and he tried to keep the influence of the USSR as low as possible.
In March 1946 at Fulton University he gave a speech in which he addressed the USA to unify with Britain against their common enemy - the USSR. This speech was considered as the announcement of the Cold War. In April 1955 he abdicated from his minister function, but he remained in the position of Adviser to the British Queen.
At this time he also wrote a historical novel about his ancestors and a lot of war memories. In the London Library there are more than 50 books of his. He was also a very good painter. In his seniority he was awarded many doctorates and other honours
If we go several miles westwards from Oxford, we come to a small village called Bladon. This village is full of very old buildings and there is also a cemetery there. There are very old graves but one of them looks very new. On the gravestone we can read the name of Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill.
This famous politic was born on the 30th November 1874. This time was quite a mild period for England. His life story was very long. When he started his political life, people were going to meetings in carriages, and when he was dying there were satellites around the world. Winston Churchill was one of the biggest personalities in the English history. He was a man of many faces. We know him mainly as a politician and statesman, but he was also an officer during the world war and at the end of his life he was awarded the Nobel price for literature.
His career started in 1896 when he was an officer in India (it was a British colony at that time). He finished his work there in 1898, and then took part in the English march to Sudan. From 1899 to 1902 he was a war correspondent. He started his political life in 1900, when he became a Member of Parliament in the House of Commons. At this time he was very admired in England and all the people were talking about him. In the following years he held many functions: 1908 - 10 Minister of Commerce, 1910 -11 Minister of Home Office and in 1911 - 15 First Lord of Admiralty. After the failure of the Dardanel operation in 1915, he resigned from political life and in 1915 - 17 he was fighting as a British officer in France and Belgium. In 1917 he returned back to political life. He recognised, that he likes problems related to wars and therefore he accepted a position as the Minister of Armament in 1917 and next year as the Minister of War. He contributed significantly to the modernisation of the British army and he supported strongly the implementation of tanks. He was one of the main organisers of the intervention against Russia. In the thirties he suggested the brisk policy against the Nazi Germany and he criticised the Munich Treaty. When the Second World War started, he was appointed the First Lord of Admiralty. He was one of the three main representatives of the anti-nazi coalition (it was called the "Big Three”). During the war he represented Great Britain on all important conferences (Casablanca, Teheran, Postupim). He consistently protected the power of the British Empire and he tried to keep the influence of the USSR as low as possible.
In March 1946 at Fulton University he gave a speech in which he addressed the USA to unify with Britain against their common enemy - the USSR. This speech was considered as the announcement of the Cold War. In April 1955 he abdicated from his minister function, but he remained in the position of Adviser to the British Queen.
At this time he also wrote a historical novel about his ancestors and a lot of war memories. In the London Library there are more than 50 books of his. He was also a very good painter. In his seniority he was awarded many doctorates and other honours
Outstanding English and American personalities - Winston L. S. Churchill
Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill
If we go several miles westwards from Oxford, we come to a small village called Bladon. This village is full of very old buildings and there is also a cemetery there. There are very old graves but one of them looks very new. On the gravestone we can read the name of Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill.
This famous politic was born on the 30th November 1874. This time was quite a mild period for England. His life story was very long. When he started his political life, people were going to meetings in carriages, and when he was dying there were satellites around the world. Winston Churchill was one of the biggest personalities in the English history. He was a man of many faces. We know him mainly as a politician and statesman, but he was also an officer during the world war and at the end of his life he was awarded the Nobel price for literature.
His career started in 1896 when he was an officer in India (it was a British colony at that time). He finished his work there in 1898, and then took part in the English march to Sudan. From 1899 to 1902 he was a war correspondent. He started his political life in 1900, when he became a Member of Parliament in the House of Commons. At this time he was very admired in England and all the people were talking about him. In the following years he held many functions: 1908 - 10 Minister of Commerce, 1910 -11 Minister of Home Office and in 1911 - 15 First Lord of Admiralty. After the failure of the Dardanel operation in 1915, he resigned from political life and in 1915 - 17 he was fighting as a British officer in France and Belgium. In 1917 he returned back to political life. He recognised, that he likes problems related to wars and therefore he accepted a position as the Minister of Armament in 1917 and next year as the Minister of War. He contributed significantly to the modernisation of the British army and he supported strongly the implementation of tanks. He was one of the main organisers of the intervention against Russia. In the thirties he suggested the brisk policy against the Nazi Germany and he criticised the Munich Treaty. When the Second World War started, he was appointed the First Lord of Admiralty. He was one of the three main representatives of the anti-nazi coalition (it was called the "Big Three”). During the war he represented Great Britain on all important conferences (Casablanca, Teheran, Postupim). He consistently protected the power of the British Empire and he tried to keep the influence of the USSR as low as possible.
In March 1946 at Fulton University he gave a speech in which he addressed the USA to unify with Britain against their common enemy - the USSR. This speech was considered as the announcement of the Cold War. In April 1955 he abdicated from his minister function, but he remained in the position of Adviser to the British Queen.
At this time he also wrote a historical novel about his ancestors and a lot of war memories. In the London Library there are more than 50 books of his. He was also a very good painter. In his seniority he was awarded many doctorates and other honours
If we go several miles westwards from Oxford, we come to a small village called Bladon. This village is full of very old buildings and there is also a cemetery there. There are very old graves but one of them looks very new. On the gravestone we can read the name of Winston Leonard Spencer Churchill.
This famous politic was born on the 30th November 1874. This time was quite a mild period for England. His life story was very long. When he started his political life, people were going to meetings in carriages, and when he was dying there were satellites around the world. Winston Churchill was one of the biggest personalities in the English history. He was a man of many faces. We know him mainly as a politician and statesman, but he was also an officer during the world war and at the end of his life he was awarded the Nobel price for literature.
His career started in 1896 when he was an officer in India (it was a British colony at that time). He finished his work there in 1898, and then took part in the English march to Sudan. From 1899 to 1902 he was a war correspondent. He started his political life in 1900, when he became a Member of Parliament in the House of Commons. At this time he was very admired in England and all the people were talking about him. In the following years he held many functions: 1908 - 10 Minister of Commerce, 1910 -11 Minister of Home Office and in 1911 - 15 First Lord of Admiralty. After the failure of the Dardanel operation in 1915, he resigned from political life and in 1915 - 17 he was fighting as a British officer in France and Belgium. In 1917 he returned back to political life. He recognised, that he likes problems related to wars and therefore he accepted a position as the Minister of Armament in 1917 and next year as the Minister of War. He contributed significantly to the modernisation of the British army and he supported strongly the implementation of tanks. He was one of the main organisers of the intervention against Russia. In the thirties he suggested the brisk policy against the Nazi Germany and he criticised the Munich Treaty. When the Second World War started, he was appointed the First Lord of Admiralty. He was one of the three main representatives of the anti-nazi coalition (it was called the "Big Three”). During the war he represented Great Britain on all important conferences (Casablanca, Teheran, Postupim). He consistently protected the power of the British Empire and he tried to keep the influence of the USSR as low as possible.
In March 1946 at Fulton University he gave a speech in which he addressed the USA to unify with Britain against their common enemy - the USSR. This speech was considered as the announcement of the Cold War. In April 1955 he abdicated from his minister function, but he remained in the position of Adviser to the British Queen.
At this time he also wrote a historical novel about his ancestors and a lot of war memories. In the London Library there are more than 50 books of his. He was also a very good painter. In his seniority he was awarded many doctorates and other honours
Education in CR
) Czech Republic
Education in the Czech Republic is compulsory from the age of 6 until the age of 15. Most children attend state schools, but there are also newly established private and church schools. At the state schools education is free of charge up to the age of 18, but pupils must pay for their textbooks. Children do not wear uniforms. Handicapped children are educated separately. The school year starts on the 1st September and finishes on the 30th June and is divided into two terms. At the end of every term the students get a school report (end of January and end of June).
The education includes these stages: pre-school
primary
secondary
tertiary
Pre-school education is provided by crèches[1] for children up to 3 and by nursery schools for children from 3 to 6 years of age. Not many children attend crèches, but a lot of them go to kindergartens.
Primary education starts at the age of 6 and finishes at the age of 15. The pupils can then go to a secondary school. If parents decide so, their children can go to a grammar school[2] at 11 after passing an entrance examination.
Secondary education
There are different types of secondary schools. The first are the grammar schools. They prepare the students for university courses. Then there are the special schools, which are very specialised. The third type are the vocational schools. They provide training for practical jobs.
Secondary education usually takes 4 years and it is finished by a school leaving examination, which is required by all universities and colleges. At grammar schools the examination is taken in the following subjects: Czech, a foreign language, and 2 other subjects. At the specialised school the examination includes five or more subjects. The oral part of the examination takes place in May, and the written part from Czech one month before that. Each subject has about 25 to 30 questions. After passing the examination the students receive a School-Leaving Certificate.
The Tertiary education includes Universities and Colleges. It takes from 4 to 6 years. Before students are accepted to the school they must pass an entrance examination. This examination consists of a written test and an interview.
The best-known universities in the Czech Republic are the Charles University (established in 1348 in Prague), the Masaryk University in Brno, the Palacký University in Olomouc, and the Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem.
Undergraduates can study a variety of subjects (law, medicine, arts, etc.). Students can enrol[3] at three-year courses for a Bachelor’s degree or four and five year courses for a Master’s degree. The studies are finished with a state examination. Every undergraduate[4] has to write a thesis[5] in order to receive a diploma in a certain[6] field of study. The thesis is handed over[7] at the graduation ceremony. Doctoral degrees are awarded after another few years of studies. Full time university students must bear the expense of their tuition[8] and they must also pay for their accommodation and board. Some students may get grants[9] or scholarships. For those who don’t want to visit university courses there are two-year training courses for managers, businessman, etc.
[1] jesle
[2] gymnázium
[3] zaregistrovat se
[4] vysokoškolák
[5] diplomová práce
[6] určitý, jistý
[7] odevzdat
[8] školné
[9] finanční podpora
Education in the Czech Republic is compulsory from the age of 6 until the age of 15. Most children attend state schools, but there are also newly established private and church schools. At the state schools education is free of charge up to the age of 18, but pupils must pay for their textbooks. Children do not wear uniforms. Handicapped children are educated separately. The school year starts on the 1st September and finishes on the 30th June and is divided into two terms. At the end of every term the students get a school report (end of January and end of June).
The education includes these stages: pre-school
primary
secondary
tertiary
Pre-school education is provided by crèches[1] for children up to 3 and by nursery schools for children from 3 to 6 years of age. Not many children attend crèches, but a lot of them go to kindergartens.
Primary education starts at the age of 6 and finishes at the age of 15. The pupils can then go to a secondary school. If parents decide so, their children can go to a grammar school[2] at 11 after passing an entrance examination.
Secondary education
There are different types of secondary schools. The first are the grammar schools. They prepare the students for university courses. Then there are the special schools, which are very specialised. The third type are the vocational schools. They provide training for practical jobs.
Secondary education usually takes 4 years and it is finished by a school leaving examination, which is required by all universities and colleges. At grammar schools the examination is taken in the following subjects: Czech, a foreign language, and 2 other subjects. At the specialised school the examination includes five or more subjects. The oral part of the examination takes place in May, and the written part from Czech one month before that. Each subject has about 25 to 30 questions. After passing the examination the students receive a School-Leaving Certificate.
The Tertiary education includes Universities and Colleges. It takes from 4 to 6 years. Before students are accepted to the school they must pass an entrance examination. This examination consists of a written test and an interview.
The best-known universities in the Czech Republic are the Charles University (established in 1348 in Prague), the Masaryk University in Brno, the Palacký University in Olomouc, and the Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem.
Undergraduates can study a variety of subjects (law, medicine, arts, etc.). Students can enrol[3] at three-year courses for a Bachelor’s degree or four and five year courses for a Master’s degree. The studies are finished with a state examination. Every undergraduate[4] has to write a thesis[5] in order to receive a diploma in a certain[6] field of study. The thesis is handed over[7] at the graduation ceremony. Doctoral degrees are awarded after another few years of studies. Full time university students must bear the expense of their tuition[8] and they must also pay for their accommodation and board. Some students may get grants[9] or scholarships. For those who don’t want to visit university courses there are two-year training courses for managers, businessman, etc.
[1] jesle
[2] gymnázium
[3] zaregistrovat se
[4] vysokoškolák
[5] diplomová práce
[6] určitý, jistý
[7] odevzdat
[8] školné
[9] finanční podpora
Education in CR
) Czech Republic
Education in the Czech Republic is compulsory from the age of 6 until the age of 15. Most children attend state schools, but there are also newly established private and church schools. At the state schools education is free of charge up to the age of 18, but pupils must pay for their textbooks. Children do not wear uniforms. Handicapped children are educated separately. The school year starts on the 1st September and finishes on the 30th June and is divided into two terms. At the end of every term the students get a school report (end of January and end of June).
The education includes these stages: pre-school
primary
secondary
tertiary
Pre-school education is provided by crèches[1] for children up to 3 and by nursery schools for children from 3 to 6 years of age. Not many children attend crèches, but a lot of them go to kindergartens.
Primary education starts at the age of 6 and finishes at the age of 15. The pupils can then go to a secondary school. If parents decide so, their children can go to a grammar school[2] at 11 after passing an entrance examination.
Secondary education
There are different types of secondary schools. The first are the grammar schools. They prepare the students for university courses. Then there are the special schools, which are very specialised. The third type are the vocational schools. They provide training for practical jobs.
Secondary education usually takes 4 years and it is finished by a school leaving examination, which is required by all universities and colleges. At grammar schools the examination is taken in the following subjects: Czech, a foreign language, and 2 other subjects. At the specialised school the examination includes five or more subjects. The oral part of the examination takes place in May, and the written part from Czech one month before that. Each subject has about 25 to 30 questions. After passing the examination the students receive a School-Leaving Certificate.
The Tertiary education includes Universities and Colleges. It takes from 4 to 6 years. Before students are accepted to the school they must pass an entrance examination. This examination consists of a written test and an interview.
The best-known universities in the Czech Republic are the Charles University (established in 1348 in Prague), the Masaryk University in Brno, the Palacký University in Olomouc, and the Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem.
Undergraduates can study a variety of subjects (law, medicine, arts, etc.). Students can enrol[3] at three-year courses for a Bachelor’s degree or four and five year courses for a Master’s degree. The studies are finished with a state examination. Every undergraduate[4] has to write a thesis[5] in order to receive a diploma in a certain[6] field of study. The thesis is handed over[7] at the graduation ceremony. Doctoral degrees are awarded after another few years of studies. Full time university students must bear the expense of their tuition[8] and they must also pay for their accommodation and board. Some students may get grants[9] or scholarships. For those who don’t want to visit university courses there are two-year training courses for managers, businessman, etc.
[1] jesle
[2] gymnázium
[3] zaregistrovat se
[4] vysokoškolák
[5] diplomová práce
[6] určitý, jistý
[7] odevzdat
[8] školné
[9] finanční podpora
Education in the Czech Republic is compulsory from the age of 6 until the age of 15. Most children attend state schools, but there are also newly established private and church schools. At the state schools education is free of charge up to the age of 18, but pupils must pay for their textbooks. Children do not wear uniforms. Handicapped children are educated separately. The school year starts on the 1st September and finishes on the 30th June and is divided into two terms. At the end of every term the students get a school report (end of January and end of June).
The education includes these stages: pre-school
primary
secondary
tertiary
Pre-school education is provided by crèches[1] for children up to 3 and by nursery schools for children from 3 to 6 years of age. Not many children attend crèches, but a lot of them go to kindergartens.
Primary education starts at the age of 6 and finishes at the age of 15. The pupils can then go to a secondary school. If parents decide so, their children can go to a grammar school[2] at 11 after passing an entrance examination.
Secondary education
There are different types of secondary schools. The first are the grammar schools. They prepare the students for university courses. Then there are the special schools, which are very specialised. The third type are the vocational schools. They provide training for practical jobs.
Secondary education usually takes 4 years and it is finished by a school leaving examination, which is required by all universities and colleges. At grammar schools the examination is taken in the following subjects: Czech, a foreign language, and 2 other subjects. At the specialised school the examination includes five or more subjects. The oral part of the examination takes place in May, and the written part from Czech one month before that. Each subject has about 25 to 30 questions. After passing the examination the students receive a School-Leaving Certificate.
The Tertiary education includes Universities and Colleges. It takes from 4 to 6 years. Before students are accepted to the school they must pass an entrance examination. This examination consists of a written test and an interview.
The best-known universities in the Czech Republic are the Charles University (established in 1348 in Prague), the Masaryk University in Brno, the Palacký University in Olomouc, and the Purkyně University in Ústí nad Labem.
Undergraduates can study a variety of subjects (law, medicine, arts, etc.). Students can enrol[3] at three-year courses for a Bachelor’s degree or four and five year courses for a Master’s degree. The studies are finished with a state examination. Every undergraduate[4] has to write a thesis[5] in order to receive a diploma in a certain[6] field of study. The thesis is handed over[7] at the graduation ceremony. Doctoral degrees are awarded after another few years of studies. Full time university students must bear the expense of their tuition[8] and they must also pay for their accommodation and board. Some students may get grants[9] or scholarships. For those who don’t want to visit university courses there are two-year training courses for managers, businessman, etc.
[1] jesle
[2] gymnázium
[3] zaregistrovat se
[4] vysokoškolák
[5] diplomová práce
[6] určitý, jistý
[7] odevzdat
[8] školné
[9] finanční podpora
USA - education
USA
The system of education is different in the individual states of the USA. The government gives money to schools, but has only little control over the curriculum. The schools are controlled by elected school boards. These school boards are elected by the people. The quality of education at the different schools depends on this board. This creates large differences between schools.
The beginning of the school year is different in each state, the end is usually in May or June. The school year is divided into three terms or quarters. At the end of each year the students get a transcript.
The schools are divided according to the different stages into pre-school and elementary, secondary, and higher.
According to the way of financing, the schools are divided into two types. The first are the public schools, which are financed by the state. These schools are free of charge. The second type are the private schools. To be educated there, the students must pay very high tuition[1] fees, and therefore they are attended mostly by the children of the rich families. All schools offer scholarships. The schools, which are sponsored by organisations, are much cheaper. Some schools still remain single-sex. In the USA the pupils usually wear uniforms.
Pre-school and elementary
Pre-school education includes nursery and kindergartens, which take children until the age of 5 or 6. Most of these institutions are private.
The compulsory education begins at the age of 6. Elementary (6-11) and secondary education is compulsory. A year is called a GRADE. Basic subjects are taught at the elementary schools.
Secondary education
Over 90% of students study until they reach the age of 18. These studies are provided by the Middle Schools (11-14) or High Schools. High schools are divided into Junior High (12-15) and High School (15-18). In some places it is possible to visit specialised courses or get a level of academic degree known as track secondary schools (science, navy, arts). The students of high schools can choose several subjects (history, English, math). Some schools offer different programs. High schools organise a lot of programs outside the classroom. Most of them have their own football or baseball team, or a choir or band.
Qualification
When leaving school, the US students are awarded a High school diploma. The national examination for entering the college is called Scholastic Aptitude Test. After the secondary school they can go either to a state-funded or a private college or university.
Higher Education
One third of the students continue their higher education in institutions such as Community colleges, Vo-techs, Universities, Colleges, or Technical colleges.
The Community Colleges are for people with a High School Diploma. After two years they are awarded the Associate of Arts degree. They receive a semi-professional (vocational) education.
The Vo-techs are vocational technical schools. The courses take from 6 months up to 2 years. After finishing there, the students usually take up employment.
Universities and Colleges
The applicants[2] to these schools are selected on the bases of a high-school transcript[3] and teacher’s recommendation. Sometimes they can require further test results. They offer undergraduate courses taking 4 years. After the successful completion of their course, the students are awarded a Bachelor’s degree (Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science). Some universities also award the Master’s degrees in humanities and science after 3 years of study, and Doctoral Degrees after 5 years of study.
The best-known universities are Harward, the Yale University, and the Princeton University. 25 % of all universities and colleges are private. Each university has a different curriculum. The students must choose major subjects and elective or minor subjects.
[1] ) dozor, ochrana, školné
[2] uchazeč, žadatel
[3] opis
The system of education is different in the individual states of the USA. The government gives money to schools, but has only little control over the curriculum. The schools are controlled by elected school boards. These school boards are elected by the people. The quality of education at the different schools depends on this board. This creates large differences between schools.
The beginning of the school year is different in each state, the end is usually in May or June. The school year is divided into three terms or quarters. At the end of each year the students get a transcript.
The schools are divided according to the different stages into pre-school and elementary, secondary, and higher.
According to the way of financing, the schools are divided into two types. The first are the public schools, which are financed by the state. These schools are free of charge. The second type are the private schools. To be educated there, the students must pay very high tuition[1] fees, and therefore they are attended mostly by the children of the rich families. All schools offer scholarships. The schools, which are sponsored by organisations, are much cheaper. Some schools still remain single-sex. In the USA the pupils usually wear uniforms.
Pre-school and elementary
Pre-school education includes nursery and kindergartens, which take children until the age of 5 or 6. Most of these institutions are private.
The compulsory education begins at the age of 6. Elementary (6-11) and secondary education is compulsory. A year is called a GRADE. Basic subjects are taught at the elementary schools.
Secondary education
Over 90% of students study until they reach the age of 18. These studies are provided by the Middle Schools (11-14) or High Schools. High schools are divided into Junior High (12-15) and High School (15-18). In some places it is possible to visit specialised courses or get a level of academic degree known as track secondary schools (science, navy, arts). The students of high schools can choose several subjects (history, English, math). Some schools offer different programs. High schools organise a lot of programs outside the classroom. Most of them have their own football or baseball team, or a choir or band.
Qualification
When leaving school, the US students are awarded a High school diploma. The national examination for entering the college is called Scholastic Aptitude Test. After the secondary school they can go either to a state-funded or a private college or university.
Higher Education
One third of the students continue their higher education in institutions such as Community colleges, Vo-techs, Universities, Colleges, or Technical colleges.
The Community Colleges are for people with a High School Diploma. After two years they are awarded the Associate of Arts degree. They receive a semi-professional (vocational) education.
The Vo-techs are vocational technical schools. The courses take from 6 months up to 2 years. After finishing there, the students usually take up employment.
Universities and Colleges
The applicants[2] to these schools are selected on the bases of a high-school transcript[3] and teacher’s recommendation. Sometimes they can require further test results. They offer undergraduate courses taking 4 years. After the successful completion of their course, the students are awarded a Bachelor’s degree (Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science). Some universities also award the Master’s degrees in humanities and science after 3 years of study, and Doctoral Degrees after 5 years of study.
The best-known universities are Harward, the Yale University, and the Princeton University. 25 % of all universities and colleges are private. Each university has a different curriculum. The students must choose major subjects and elective or minor subjects.
[1] ) dozor, ochrana, školné
[2] uchazeč, žadatel
[3] opis
USA - education
USA
The system of education is different in the individual states of the USA. The government gives money to schools, but has only little control over the curriculum. The schools are controlled by elected school boards. These school boards are elected by the people. The quality of education at the different schools depends on this board. This creates large differences between schools.
The beginning of the school year is different in each state, the end is usually in May or June. The school year is divided into three terms or quarters. At the end of each year the students get a transcript.
The schools are divided according to the different stages into pre-school and elementary, secondary, and higher.
According to the way of financing, the schools are divided into two types. The first are the public schools, which are financed by the state. These schools are free of charge. The second type are the private schools. To be educated there, the students must pay very high tuition[1] fees, and therefore they are attended mostly by the children of the rich families. All schools offer scholarships. The schools, which are sponsored by organisations, are much cheaper. Some schools still remain single-sex. In the USA the pupils usually wear uniforms.
Pre-school and elementary
Pre-school education includes nursery and kindergartens, which take children until the age of 5 or 6. Most of these institutions are private.
The compulsory education begins at the age of 6. Elementary (6-11) and secondary education is compulsory. A year is called a GRADE. Basic subjects are taught at the elementary schools.
Secondary education
Over 90% of students study until they reach the age of 18. These studies are provided by the Middle Schools (11-14) or High Schools. High schools are divided into Junior High (12-15) and High School (15-18). In some places it is possible to visit specialised courses or get a level of academic degree known as track secondary schools (science, navy, arts). The students of high schools can choose several subjects (history, English, math). Some schools offer different programs. High schools organise a lot of programs outside the classroom. Most of them have their own football or baseball team, or a choir or band.
Qualification
When leaving school, the US students are awarded a High school diploma. The national examination for entering the college is called Scholastic Aptitude Test. After the secondary school they can go either to a state-funded or a private college or university.
Higher Education
One third of the students continue their higher education in institutions such as Community colleges, Vo-techs, Universities, Colleges, or Technical colleges.
The Community Colleges are for people with a High School Diploma. After two years they are awarded the Associate of Arts degree. They receive a semi-professional (vocational) education.
The Vo-techs are vocational technical schools. The courses take from 6 months up to 2 years. After finishing there, the students usually take up employment.
Universities and Colleges
The applicants[2] to these schools are selected on the bases of a high-school transcript[3] and teacher’s recommendation. Sometimes they can require further test results. They offer undergraduate courses taking 4 years. After the successful completion of their course, the students are awarded a Bachelor’s degree (Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science). Some universities also award the Master’s degrees in humanities and science after 3 years of study, and Doctoral Degrees after 5 years of study.
The best-known universities are Harward, the Yale University, and the Princeton University. 25 % of all universities and colleges are private. Each university has a different curriculum. The students must choose major subjects and elective or minor subjects.
[1] ) dozor, ochrana, školné
[2] uchazeč, žadatel
[3] opis
The system of education is different in the individual states of the USA. The government gives money to schools, but has only little control over the curriculum. The schools are controlled by elected school boards. These school boards are elected by the people. The quality of education at the different schools depends on this board. This creates large differences between schools.
The beginning of the school year is different in each state, the end is usually in May or June. The school year is divided into three terms or quarters. At the end of each year the students get a transcript.
The schools are divided according to the different stages into pre-school and elementary, secondary, and higher.
According to the way of financing, the schools are divided into two types. The first are the public schools, which are financed by the state. These schools are free of charge. The second type are the private schools. To be educated there, the students must pay very high tuition[1] fees, and therefore they are attended mostly by the children of the rich families. All schools offer scholarships. The schools, which are sponsored by organisations, are much cheaper. Some schools still remain single-sex. In the USA the pupils usually wear uniforms.
Pre-school and elementary
Pre-school education includes nursery and kindergartens, which take children until the age of 5 or 6. Most of these institutions are private.
The compulsory education begins at the age of 6. Elementary (6-11) and secondary education is compulsory. A year is called a GRADE. Basic subjects are taught at the elementary schools.
Secondary education
Over 90% of students study until they reach the age of 18. These studies are provided by the Middle Schools (11-14) or High Schools. High schools are divided into Junior High (12-15) and High School (15-18). In some places it is possible to visit specialised courses or get a level of academic degree known as track secondary schools (science, navy, arts). The students of high schools can choose several subjects (history, English, math). Some schools offer different programs. High schools organise a lot of programs outside the classroom. Most of them have their own football or baseball team, or a choir or band.
Qualification
When leaving school, the US students are awarded a High school diploma. The national examination for entering the college is called Scholastic Aptitude Test. After the secondary school they can go either to a state-funded or a private college or university.
Higher Education
One third of the students continue their higher education in institutions such as Community colleges, Vo-techs, Universities, Colleges, or Technical colleges.
The Community Colleges are for people with a High School Diploma. After two years they are awarded the Associate of Arts degree. They receive a semi-professional (vocational) education.
The Vo-techs are vocational technical schools. The courses take from 6 months up to 2 years. After finishing there, the students usually take up employment.
Universities and Colleges
The applicants[2] to these schools are selected on the bases of a high-school transcript[3] and teacher’s recommendation. Sometimes they can require further test results. They offer undergraduate courses taking 4 years. After the successful completion of their course, the students are awarded a Bachelor’s degree (Bachelor of Arts or Bachelor of Science). Some universities also award the Master’s degrees in humanities and science after 3 years of study, and Doctoral Degrees after 5 years of study.
The best-known universities are Harward, the Yale University, and the Princeton University. 25 % of all universities and colleges are private. Each university has a different curriculum. The students must choose major subjects and elective or minor subjects.
[1] ) dozor, ochrana, školné
[2] uchazeč, žadatel
[3] opis
Education in Great Britain
Great Britain
Types of people: Nursery under 5 years
Infant 5 – 7 years
Junior 7 – 11 years
Senior 11- 16 plus
Further education 16 plus
University 18 plus
1. Primary and Secondary education
Every person between the age of 5 and 16 receives full time education. The attendance is compulsory and free of charge. The schools are mixed, boys and girls are taught together. The primary schools are non-selective.
There are two types of Secondary schools. A majority of students chooses the first type, the so-called Comprehensive[1] school. The second type is the Grammar school. It teaches students from the age of 11 up to 18 years and provides academic education. This type is selective, students have to pass an entrance examination.
2. Public schools (private)
These schools offer private education. 7 – 8 % of British students attend public schools. The best-known examples of such institutions are e.g. Eton or Harrow. These schools are quite expensive, but students can get scholarships[2] there. Before the students enter this school, they usually attend preparatory school between the ages of 8 and 13.
3. The National Curriculum[3]
It was published in the year 1989. It is aimed at increasing the knowledge of pupils in England and Wales in the ages from 5 to 16. Its main purpose is to raise students, extend the parental choice, give schools greater responsibilities, and put emphasis[4] on the national knowledge. It set the core[5] subjects as English, Mathematics, and Science, and other basic[6] subjects: Technology, History, Geography, Music, Art, Physical education, and Modern foreign languages. From the age of 5 up to 14, all students must study nine subjects, and then from the age of 11 up to 14 they must add a modern language.
4. Key stages 1. Infant - up to 7 years
2. Junior - 7 – 11 years
3. Pre-GCSE - 11 – 14 years
4. Preparation for GCSE - 14 – 16
5. Education from the age of 14
From the age of 14 to 16, the students have 3 core subjects: Technology, a modern language, and Physical education. In Wales they also have history, geography, and their language – Welsh.
6. Examination
At the age of 16 or more the students take and exam called the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The compulsory[7] subjects are English, Science, and Mathematics.
7. The higher courses
At the age of 18 the students have to pass an entrance examination for higher education called the A – level. There is also a newer type of examination, which is called Advanced Supplementary. This examination is for people aged 16 or over and it enables them to increase the number of studied subjects.
8. Exceptions in Scotland
There are only two major exceptions to the facts stated above in Scotland. Secondary schools are called Public schools and the pupils move to the Secondary schools at the age of 12, not 11.
9. Higher education
Higher education in Britain is available at Universities and institutions for higher education. Britain has 47 Universities (including the Open University). The oldest Universities are in Oxford and Cambridge (12th – 14th century). The Scottish universities St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen date back to the 14th and 15th century.
10. UCLES
This is the abbreviation of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. It was established in 1858 by the Cambridge University. It sets standards of efficiency[8] for schools. It was also extended overseas, in our country it is promoted by the British Council.
11. University system
The first degree takes 3 – 4 years (medical – 5 years). The main qualifications are B.A. – Bachelor of Arts and B.Sc. – Bachelor of Science. It is typical that students who are studying subjects such as engineering spend some time in an industrial location so that they get some experience. The degrees depend on the results achieved in a three-hour examination and practical work in the core subject. The degrees are divided into first class, second class upper and lower, and third class.
The British Universities also offer the so-called sandwich courses. They are made for people who want to study while working. Some students continue their studies for the degrees of Master of Art, Master of Science, or Master of Philosophy. This takes 1 or 2 more years. A minority[9] of students goes on further in their studies and they obtain the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
[1] ) všeobecný
[2] ) stipendium
[3] ) osnova
[4] ) důraz
[5] ) jádro, hlavní
[6] ) základ, základní
[7] povinný
[8] efektivita, výkonnost
[9] ) menšina
Types of people: Nursery under 5 years
Infant 5 – 7 years
Junior 7 – 11 years
Senior 11- 16 plus
Further education 16 plus
University 18 plus
1. Primary and Secondary education
Every person between the age of 5 and 16 receives full time education. The attendance is compulsory and free of charge. The schools are mixed, boys and girls are taught together. The primary schools are non-selective.
There are two types of Secondary schools. A majority of students chooses the first type, the so-called Comprehensive[1] school. The second type is the Grammar school. It teaches students from the age of 11 up to 18 years and provides academic education. This type is selective, students have to pass an entrance examination.
2. Public schools (private)
These schools offer private education. 7 – 8 % of British students attend public schools. The best-known examples of such institutions are e.g. Eton or Harrow. These schools are quite expensive, but students can get scholarships[2] there. Before the students enter this school, they usually attend preparatory school between the ages of 8 and 13.
3. The National Curriculum[3]
It was published in the year 1989. It is aimed at increasing the knowledge of pupils in England and Wales in the ages from 5 to 16. Its main purpose is to raise students, extend the parental choice, give schools greater responsibilities, and put emphasis[4] on the national knowledge. It set the core[5] subjects as English, Mathematics, and Science, and other basic[6] subjects: Technology, History, Geography, Music, Art, Physical education, and Modern foreign languages. From the age of 5 up to 14, all students must study nine subjects, and then from the age of 11 up to 14 they must add a modern language.
4. Key stages 1. Infant - up to 7 years
2. Junior - 7 – 11 years
3. Pre-GCSE - 11 – 14 years
4. Preparation for GCSE - 14 – 16
5. Education from the age of 14
From the age of 14 to 16, the students have 3 core subjects: Technology, a modern language, and Physical education. In Wales they also have history, geography, and their language – Welsh.
6. Examination
At the age of 16 or more the students take and exam called the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The compulsory[7] subjects are English, Science, and Mathematics.
7. The higher courses
At the age of 18 the students have to pass an entrance examination for higher education called the A – level. There is also a newer type of examination, which is called Advanced Supplementary. This examination is for people aged 16 or over and it enables them to increase the number of studied subjects.
8. Exceptions in Scotland
There are only two major exceptions to the facts stated above in Scotland. Secondary schools are called Public schools and the pupils move to the Secondary schools at the age of 12, not 11.
9. Higher education
Higher education in Britain is available at Universities and institutions for higher education. Britain has 47 Universities (including the Open University). The oldest Universities are in Oxford and Cambridge (12th – 14th century). The Scottish universities St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen date back to the 14th and 15th century.
10. UCLES
This is the abbreviation of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. It was established in 1858 by the Cambridge University. It sets standards of efficiency[8] for schools. It was also extended overseas, in our country it is promoted by the British Council.
11. University system
The first degree takes 3 – 4 years (medical – 5 years). The main qualifications are B.A. – Bachelor of Arts and B.Sc. – Bachelor of Science. It is typical that students who are studying subjects such as engineering spend some time in an industrial location so that they get some experience. The degrees depend on the results achieved in a three-hour examination and practical work in the core subject. The degrees are divided into first class, second class upper and lower, and third class.
The British Universities also offer the so-called sandwich courses. They are made for people who want to study while working. Some students continue their studies for the degrees of Master of Art, Master of Science, or Master of Philosophy. This takes 1 or 2 more years. A minority[9] of students goes on further in their studies and they obtain the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
[1] ) všeobecný
[2] ) stipendium
[3] ) osnova
[4] ) důraz
[5] ) jádro, hlavní
[6] ) základ, základní
[7] povinný
[8] efektivita, výkonnost
[9] ) menšina
Education in Great Britain
Great Britain
Types of people: Nursery under 5 years
Infant 5 – 7 years
Junior 7 – 11 years
Senior 11- 16 plus
Further education 16 plus
University 18 plus
1. Primary and Secondary education
Every person between the age of 5 and 16 receives full time education. The attendance is compulsory and free of charge. The schools are mixed, boys and girls are taught together. The primary schools are non-selective.
There are two types of Secondary schools. A majority of students chooses the first type, the so-called Comprehensive[1] school. The second type is the Grammar school. It teaches students from the age of 11 up to 18 years and provides academic education. This type is selective, students have to pass an entrance examination.
2. Public schools (private)
These schools offer private education. 7 – 8 % of British students attend public schools. The best-known examples of such institutions are e.g. Eton or Harrow. These schools are quite expensive, but students can get scholarships[2] there. Before the students enter this school, they usually attend preparatory school between the ages of 8 and 13.
3. The National Curriculum[3]
It was published in the year 1989. It is aimed at increasing the knowledge of pupils in England and Wales in the ages from 5 to 16. Its main purpose is to raise students, extend the parental choice, give schools greater responsibilities, and put emphasis[4] on the national knowledge. It set the core[5] subjects as English, Mathematics, and Science, and other basic[6] subjects: Technology, History, Geography, Music, Art, Physical education, and Modern foreign languages. From the age of 5 up to 14, all students must study nine subjects, and then from the age of 11 up to 14 they must add a modern language.
4. Key stages 1. Infant - up to 7 years
2. Junior - 7 – 11 years
3. Pre-GCSE - 11 – 14 years
4. Preparation for GCSE - 14 – 16
5. Education from the age of 14
From the age of 14 to 16, the students have 3 core subjects: Technology, a modern language, and Physical education. In Wales they also have history, geography, and their language – Welsh.
6. Examination
At the age of 16 or more the students take and exam called the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The compulsory[7] subjects are English, Science, and Mathematics.
7. The higher courses
At the age of 18 the students have to pass an entrance examination for higher education called the A – level. There is also a newer type of examination, which is called Advanced Supplementary. This examination is for people aged 16 or over and it enables them to increase the number of studied subjects.
8. Exceptions in Scotland
There are only two major exceptions to the facts stated above in Scotland. Secondary schools are called Public schools and the pupils move to the Secondary schools at the age of 12, not 11.
9. Higher education
Higher education in Britain is available at Universities and institutions for higher education. Britain has 47 Universities (including the Open University). The oldest Universities are in Oxford and Cambridge (12th – 14th century). The Scottish universities St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen date back to the 14th and 15th century.
10. UCLES
This is the abbreviation of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. It was established in 1858 by the Cambridge University. It sets standards of efficiency[8] for schools. It was also extended overseas, in our country it is promoted by the British Council.
11. University system
The first degree takes 3 – 4 years (medical – 5 years). The main qualifications are B.A. – Bachelor of Arts and B.Sc. – Bachelor of Science. It is typical that students who are studying subjects such as engineering spend some time in an industrial location so that they get some experience. The degrees depend on the results achieved in a three-hour examination and practical work in the core subject. The degrees are divided into first class, second class upper and lower, and third class.
The British Universities also offer the so-called sandwich courses. They are made for people who want to study while working. Some students continue their studies for the degrees of Master of Art, Master of Science, or Master of Philosophy. This takes 1 or 2 more years. A minority[9] of students goes on further in their studies and they obtain the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
[1] ) všeobecný
[2] ) stipendium
[3] ) osnova
[4] ) důraz
[5] ) jádro, hlavní
[6] ) základ, základní
[7] povinný
[8] efektivita, výkonnost
[9] ) menšina
Types of people: Nursery under 5 years
Infant 5 – 7 years
Junior 7 – 11 years
Senior 11- 16 plus
Further education 16 plus
University 18 plus
1. Primary and Secondary education
Every person between the age of 5 and 16 receives full time education. The attendance is compulsory and free of charge. The schools are mixed, boys and girls are taught together. The primary schools are non-selective.
There are two types of Secondary schools. A majority of students chooses the first type, the so-called Comprehensive[1] school. The second type is the Grammar school. It teaches students from the age of 11 up to 18 years and provides academic education. This type is selective, students have to pass an entrance examination.
2. Public schools (private)
These schools offer private education. 7 – 8 % of British students attend public schools. The best-known examples of such institutions are e.g. Eton or Harrow. These schools are quite expensive, but students can get scholarships[2] there. Before the students enter this school, they usually attend preparatory school between the ages of 8 and 13.
3. The National Curriculum[3]
It was published in the year 1989. It is aimed at increasing the knowledge of pupils in England and Wales in the ages from 5 to 16. Its main purpose is to raise students, extend the parental choice, give schools greater responsibilities, and put emphasis[4] on the national knowledge. It set the core[5] subjects as English, Mathematics, and Science, and other basic[6] subjects: Technology, History, Geography, Music, Art, Physical education, and Modern foreign languages. From the age of 5 up to 14, all students must study nine subjects, and then from the age of 11 up to 14 they must add a modern language.
4. Key stages 1. Infant - up to 7 years
2. Junior - 7 – 11 years
3. Pre-GCSE - 11 – 14 years
4. Preparation for GCSE - 14 – 16
5. Education from the age of 14
From the age of 14 to 16, the students have 3 core subjects: Technology, a modern language, and Physical education. In Wales they also have history, geography, and their language – Welsh.
6. Examination
At the age of 16 or more the students take and exam called the General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE). The compulsory[7] subjects are English, Science, and Mathematics.
7. The higher courses
At the age of 18 the students have to pass an entrance examination for higher education called the A – level. There is also a newer type of examination, which is called Advanced Supplementary. This examination is for people aged 16 or over and it enables them to increase the number of studied subjects.
8. Exceptions in Scotland
There are only two major exceptions to the facts stated above in Scotland. Secondary schools are called Public schools and the pupils move to the Secondary schools at the age of 12, not 11.
9. Higher education
Higher education in Britain is available at Universities and institutions for higher education. Britain has 47 Universities (including the Open University). The oldest Universities are in Oxford and Cambridge (12th – 14th century). The Scottish universities St Andrews, Glasgow, and Aberdeen date back to the 14th and 15th century.
10. UCLES
This is the abbreviation of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate. It was established in 1858 by the Cambridge University. It sets standards of efficiency[8] for schools. It was also extended overseas, in our country it is promoted by the British Council.
11. University system
The first degree takes 3 – 4 years (medical – 5 years). The main qualifications are B.A. – Bachelor of Arts and B.Sc. – Bachelor of Science. It is typical that students who are studying subjects such as engineering spend some time in an industrial location so that they get some experience. The degrees depend on the results achieved in a three-hour examination and practical work in the core subject. The degrees are divided into first class, second class upper and lower, and third class.
The British Universities also offer the so-called sandwich courses. They are made for people who want to study while working. Some students continue their studies for the degrees of Master of Art, Master of Science, or Master of Philosophy. This takes 1 or 2 more years. A minority[9] of students goes on further in their studies and they obtain the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
[1] ) všeobecný
[2] ) stipendium
[3] ) osnova
[4] ) důraz
[5] ) jádro, hlavní
[6] ) základ, základní
[7] povinný
[8] efektivita, výkonnost
[9] ) menšina
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